3.5. signals#

3.5.1. basics#

  • dirac-delta infinity at one point, zero everywhere else

  • amplitude-period-ex3

3.5.2. intro#

  • signal can be continuous or discrete based on its domain (not values)

  • analog signal - continuous in time

    • sampling - the process of taking individual values of a continuous-time signal

    • sampling rate \(f_s\) - the number of samples taken per second (Hz)

    • sampling period - time interval between samples

  • digital signal - discrete in time and value

  • ”If a function x(t) contains no frequencies higher than B hertz, it is completely determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced 1 2B seconds apart” –Shannon

  • signals are usually studied in

    • time-domain (with respect to time)

    • frequency-domain (with respect to frequency) - use Fourier transform

    • time-frequency representation (TFR) - use short-time Fourier transform (STFT) or wavelets

  • harmonic analysis - studies relationship between time and frequency domain

  • common filters

    • low-pass filter - pass only low frequencies

    • high-pass filter - pass only high frequencies

    • band-pass filter - pass only frequencies within a specified range

    • band-stop filter - pass only frequences outside a specified range

  • power spectrum - how much of the signal is at a frequency \(\omega\)? - square of the magnitude of the coefficients of the Fourier coefficients for \(\omega\)

Screen Shot 2019-12-11 at 1.37.55 PM

3.5.3. fourier analysis#

  • good tutorial

  • Fourier analysis - study of way general functions can be represented by Fourier series

  • Fourier series - periodic function composed of harmonically related sinusoids, combined by a weighted summation

    • one period of the summation can approximate an arbitrary function in that interval

  • (continuous) Fourier transform \(\hat f\): time (x) -> frequency (u)

    • \(\hat{f}(u) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x)\ e^{-2\pi i x u}\,dx\)

    • \(f(x) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \hat f(u)\ e^{2\pi i x u} \,du\)

    • 2-dimensional (good ref)

      • \(F(u, v) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x, y) e^{-i 2 \pi (ux + vy)}\,dx\, dy\)

      • inverse: \(f(x,y) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} F(u, v) e^{i 2 \pi (ux + vy)}\,du\, dv\)

      • for each basis, magnitude of vector [u, v] is frequency and direction gives orientation

  • Fourier transform of Gaussian is Gaussian

  • discrete-time Fourier transform - values are still continuous

    • \(X_{2\pi}(\omega) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} x_n \,e^{-i \omega n}\)

      • \(\omega\) is frequency

  • discrete Fourier transform (DFT or the analysis equation) - this is by far the most common

    • \(\begin{align}X_k &= \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n e^{-2\pi i k n / N}\\&=\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n \left[ \cos(2\pi k \frac n N ) - i \sin(2 \pi k \frac n N )\right]\end{align}\)

    • larger k is higher freq.

    • inverse transform: \(x_n = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} X_k\cdot e^{i 2 \pi k n / N}\)

    • \(x_0, x_1, ... x_{N-1}\) is a sequence of N complex numbers (i.e. time domain) and we transform to another sequence of complex numbers \(X_0, X_1, ..., X_{N-1}\)

      • we write \(\mathbf X = \mathcal F (\mathbf x)\)

      • vectors \(u_k = \left[\left. e^{ \frac{i 2\pi}{N} kn} \;\right|\; n=0,1,\ldots,N-1 \right]^\mathsf{T}\) form an orthogonal basis over the set of N-dimensional complex vectors

    • interpreting units

      • a frequency of 1/N would correspond to a period of N

        • use \(2\pi/N\) so that it goes through one cycle with period of N

      • the n=0 parts correspond to a constant

      • all other frequencies are integer multiples of the first fundamental frequency

      • finding coefs: basically want to use the correlation between the signal and the basis element (this is what the summation and muliptlying does)

      • real part - corresponds to even part of the signal (the cosines)

      • imaginary part - corresponds to odd parts of the signal

  • can be quickly computed using the Fast Fourier Transform in \(O(n \log n)\) instead of \(O(n^2)\)

  • inverse discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT)

  • windowed fourier transform - chop signal into sections and analyze each section separately

3.5.4. wavelet analysis#

  • wavelet is localized in both time and frequency information

    • different wavelets thus vary in translation, scale, and sometimes orientation

    • many choices for wavelet basis, which replaces the sinusoid basis sinusoid \(\phi(x) = e^{i 2 \pi k x/N}\)

3.5.4.1. wavelet basics#

  • \(\phi(x)\) = mother wavelet (or analyzing wavelet)

    • basis consists of translations and dilations of the mother wavelet \(\phi(\frac{x-b}{a})\)

  • wavelet vocab

    • discrete wavelet transform: set \(a=2^{-j}, b = k \cdot 2^{-j}\), where \(k\) and \(j\) are integers

      • starts from multiresolution analysis (mallat, 1989)

    • continuous wavelet transform: \(a > 0, b\) (still a point-by-point, digita transformation)

    • orthonormal

      • biorthogonal - more relaxed, still enables perfect reconstruction

    • undecimated - highly overparameterized, exists at every location

  • website to explore different wavelets

    • ex. Haar wavelet (step function on [0, 1]

      • haar

      • define translations and dilations \(\phi_{jk}(x) = \text{const} \cdot \phi(2^j x - k)\)

        • j, k are still integers

        • this is still orthogonal

    • ex. Gabor==Morlet wavelet: \(\phi_\sigma(x) = c \cdot \underbrace{e^{-\frac 1 2 x^2}}_{\text{gaussian window}} \underbrace{(e^{i\sigma x} - \kappa_\sigma)}_{\text{frequency}}\)

    • ex. Mexican hat wavelet - 2nd deriv of Gaussian pdf (in 2d, called Laplacian of Gaussian)

    • ex. Daubechies wavelet

    • ex. coiflet

    • ex. scattering transform

    • ex. Mallat’s MRA - stretch/scale wavelets in a smart way to tile space

  • how are wavelets implemented? (figs taken from blog)

    • note: Continuous Wavelet Transform, (CWT), and the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), are both, point-by-point, digital, transformations that are easily implemented on a computer

      • DWT restricts the value of the scale and translation of the wavelets (e.g. scale must increase in powers of 2 and translation must be integer)

    • Screen Shot 2019-12-11 at 2.00.27 PM

    • The approximation coefficients represent the output of the low pass filter (averaging filter) of the DWT.

    • The detail coefficients represent the output of the high pass filter (difference filter) of the DWT

    • pywt 2d can decompose in different ways

      • Screen Shot 2019-12-11 at 2.47.53 PM

      • wavelet packet uses linear combinations of wavelets

3.5.4.2. properties of different wavelet bases#

  • vanishing moments

    • higher number of vanishing moments = more complex wavelet

      • more accurate repr. of complex signal

      • longer support

      • p vanishing moments => polynomials up to pth order will not be identified

  • regularity

    • more vanishing moments = higher regularity

    • low regularity - more jagged wavelets, less smooth reconstructions

  • invertibility

    • requires admissibility condition, which at least requires wavelets have vanishing mean \(\int \psi(x) \mathrm{d} x=0\)

3.5.4.3. wavelet analysis#

  • orthogonal wavelet basis: \(\phi_{(s,l)} (x) = 2^{-s/2} \phi (2^{-s} x-l)\)

    • scaling function \(W(x) = \sum_{k=-1}^{N-2} (-1)^k c_{k+1} \phi (2x+k)\) where \(\sum_{k=0,N-1} c_k=2, \: \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} c_k c_{k+2l} = 2 \delta_{l,0}\)

  • one pattern of coefficients is smoothing and another brings out detail = called quadrature mirror filter pair

  • there is also a fast discrete wavelet transform (Mallat)

  • basis of adapted waveform - best basis function for a given signal representation

  • differential operator and capable of being tuned to act at any desired scale

3.5.4.4. more general wavelets#